Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) - Advantages and Disadvantages

A boiling water reactor (BWR) is a type of light-water nuclear reactor developed by the General Electric Company in the mid 1950s. 


1.Reactor pressure vessel 2.Fuel rods 3. Control rod 4.Circulating pump 5.Control rod drive 6.Fresh steam 7. Feedwater 8.High pressure turbine 9.Low pressure turbine 10.Generator 11.Exciter 12.Condenser 13.Cooling water 14.Preheater 15.Feedwater pump 16. Cooling water pump 17.Concrete shield 

The above diagram shows BWR and its main parts.The BWR is characterized by two-phase fluid flow (water and steam) in the upper part of the reactor core. Light water (i.e., common distilled water) is the working fluid used to conduct heat away from the nuclear fuel. The water around the fuel elements also "thermalizes" neutrons, i.e., reduces their kinetic energy, which is necessary to improve the probability of fission of fissile fuel. Fissile fuel material, such as the U-235 and Pu-239 isotopes, have large capture cross sections for thermal neutrons. 

In a boling water reactor, light water (H2O) plays the role of moderator and coolant, as well. In this case the steam is generted in the reactor it self.As you can see in the diagrm feed water enters the reactor pressure vessel at the bottom and takes up the heat generated due to fission of fuel (fuel rods) and gets converted in to steam. 

Part of the water boils away in the reactor pressure vessel, thus a mixture of water and steam leaves the reactor core. The so generated steam directly goes to the turbine, therefore steam and moisture must be separated (water drops in steam can damage the turbine blades). Steam leaving the turbine is condensed in the condenser and then fed back to the reactor after preheating. Water that has not evaporated in the reactor vessel accumulates at the bottom of the vessel and mixes with the pumped back feedwater. 
Since boiling in the reactor is allowed, the pressure is lower than that of the PWRs: it is about 60 to 70 bars. The fuel is usually uranium dioxide. Enrichment of the fresh fuel is normally somewhat lower than that in a PWR. The advantage of this type is that - since this type has the simplest construction - the building costs are comparatively low. 22.5% of the total power of presently operating nuclear power plants is given by BWRs. 

Feedwater Inside of a BWR reactor pressure vessel (RPV), feedwater enters through nozzles high on the vessel, well above the top of the nuclear fuel assemblies (these nuclear fuel assemblies constitute the "core") but below the water level. The feedwater is pumped into the RPV from the condensers located underneath the low pressure turbines and after going through feedwater heaters that raise its temperature using extraction steam from various turbine stages.
The feedwater enters into the downcomer region and combines with water exiting the water separators. The feedwater subcools the saturated water from the steam separators. This water now flows down the downcomer region, which is separated from the core by a tall shroud. The water then goes through either jet pumps or internal recirculation pumps that provide additional pumping power (hydraulic head). The water now makes a 180 degree turn and moves up through the lower core plate into the nuclear core where the fuel elements heat the water. When the flow moves out of the core through the upper core plate, about 12 to 15% of the flow by volume is saturated steam.
The heating from the core creates a thermal head that assists the recirculation pumps in recirculating the water inside of the RPV. A BWR can be designed with no recirculation pumps and rely entirely on the thermal head to recirculate the water inside of the RPV. The forced recirculation head from the recirculation pumps is very useful in controlling power, however. The thermal power level is easily varied by simply increasing or decreasing the speed of the recirculation pumps.
The two phase fluid (water and steam) above the core enters the riser area, which is the upper region contained inside of the shroud. The height of this region may be increased to increase the thermal natural recirculation pumping head. At the top of the riser area is the water separator. By swirling the two phase flow in cyclone separators, the steam is separated and rises upwards towards the steam dryer while the water remains behind and flows horizontally out into the downcomer region. In the downcomer region, it combines with the feedwater flow and the cycle repeats.
The saturated steam that rises above the separator is dried by a chevron dryer structure. The steam then exists the RPV through four main steam lines and goes to the turbine.
Control systems 
Reactor power is controlled via two methods: by inserting or withdrawing control rods and by changing the water flow through the reactor core.
Positioning (withdrawing or inserting) control rods is the normal method for controlling power when starting up a BWR. As control rods are withdrawn, neutron absorption decreases in the control material and increases in the fuel, so reactor power increases. As control rods are inserted, neutron absorption increases in the control material and decreases in the fuel, so reactor power decreases. Some early BWRs and the proposed ESBWR designs use only natural ciculation with control rod positioning to control power from zero to 100% because they do not have reactor recirculation systems.
Changing (increasing or decreasing) the flow of water through the core is the normal and convenient method for controlling power. When operating on the so-called "100% rod line," power may be varied from approximately 70% to 100% of rated power by changing the reactor recirculation system flow by varying the speed of the recirculation pumps. As flow of water through the core is increased, steam bubbles ("voids") are more quickly removed from the core, the amount of liquid water in the core increases, neutron moderation increases, more neutrons are slowed down to be absorbed by the fuel, and reactor power increases. As flow of water through the core is decreased, steam voids remain longer in the core, the amount of liquid water in the core decreases, neutron moderation decreases, fewer neutrons are slowed down to be absorbed by the fuel, and reactor power decreases.
Steam Turbines 
Steam produced in the reactor core passes through steam separators and dryer plates above the core and then directly to the turbine, which is part of the reactor circuit. Because the water around the core of a reactor is always contaminated with traces of radionuclides, the turbine must be shielded during normal operation, and radiological protection must be provided during maintenance. The increased cost related to operation and maintenance of a BWR tends to balance the savings due to the simpler design and greater thermal efficiency of a BWR when compared with a PWR. Most of the radioactivity in the water is very short-lived (mostly N-16, with a 7 second half life), so the turbine hall can be entered soon after the reactor is shut down.
Safety Like the pressurized water reactor, the BWR reactor core continues to produce heat from radioactive decay after the fission reactions have stopped, making nuclear meltdown possible in the event that all safety systems have failed and the core does not receive coolant. Also like the pressurized water reactor, a boiling-water reactor has a negative void coefficient, that is, the thermal output decreases as the proportion of steam to liquid water increases inside the reactor. However, unlike a pressurized water reactor which contains no steam in the reactor core, a sudden increase in BWR steam pressure (caused, for example, by a blockage of steam flow from the reactor) will result in a sudden decrease in the proportion of steam to liquid water inside the reactor. The increased ratio of water to steam will lead to increased neutron moderation, which in turn will cause an increase in the power output of the reactor. Because of this effect in BWRs, operating components and safety systems are designed to ensure that no credible, postulated failure can cause a pressure and power increase that exceeds the safety systems' capability to quickly shutdown the reactor before damage to the fuel or to components containing the reactor coolant can occur. 
In the event of an emergency that disables all of the safety systems, each reactor is surrounded by a containment building designed to seal off the reactor from the environment. 
Comparison with other reactors Light water is ordinary water. In comparison, some other water-cooled reactor types use heavy water. In heavy water, the deuterium isotope of hydrogen replaces the common hydrogen atoms in the water molecules (D2O instead of H2O, molecular weight 20 instead of 18). 
The Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) was the first type of light-water reactor developed because of its application to submarine propulsion. The civilian motivation for the BWR is reducing costs for commercial applications through design simplification and lower pressure components. In naval reactors, BWR designs are used when natural circulation is specified for its quietness. The description of BWRs below describes civilian reactor plants in which the same water used for reactor cooling is also used in the Rankine cycle turbine generators. A Naval BWR is designed like a PWR that has both primary and secondary loops. 
In contrast to the pressurized water reactors that utilize a primary and secondary loop, in civilian BWRs the steam going to the turbine that powers the electrical generator is produced in the reactor core rather than in steam generators or heat exchangers. There is just a single circuit in a civilian BWR in which the water is at lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) compared to a PWR so that it boils in the core at about 285°C. The reactor is designed to operate with steam comprising 12–15% of the volume of the two-phase coolant flow (the "void fraction") in the top part of the core, resulting in less moderation, lower neutron efficiency and lower power density than in the bottom part of the core. In comparison, there is no significant boiling allowed in a PWR because of the high pressure maintained in its primary loop (about 158 times atmospheric pressure). 

Advantages 

• The reactor vessel and associated components operate at a substantially lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) compared to a PWR (about 158 times atmospheric pressure).
• Pressure vessel is subject to significantly less irradiation compared to a PWR, and so does not become as brittle with age.
• Operates at a lower nuclear fuel temperature.
• Fewer components due to no steam generators and no pressurizer vessel. (Older BWRs have external recirculation loops, but even this piping is eliminated in modern BWRs, such as the ABWR.)
• Lower risk (probability) of a rupture causing loss of coolant compared to a PWR, and lower risk of a severe accident should such a rupture occur. This is due to fewer pipes, fewer large diameter pipes, fewer welds and no steam generator tubes.
• Measuring the water level in the pressure vessel is the same for both normal and emergency operations, which results in easy and intuitive assessment of emergency conditions.
• Can operate at lower core power density levels using natural circulation without forced flow.
• A BWR may be designed to operate using only natural circulation so that recirculation pumps are eliminated entirely. (The new ESBWR design uses natural circulation.)

Disadvantages

• Complex operational calculations for managing the utilization of the nuclear fuel in the fuel elements during power production due to "two phase fluid flow" (water and steam) in the upper part of the core (less of a factor with modern computers). More incore nuclear instrumentation is required.
• Much larger pressure vessel than for a PWR of similar power, with correspondingly higher cost. (However, the overall cost is reduced because a modern BWR has no main steam generators and associated piping.)
• Contamination of the turbine by fission products.
• Shielding and access control around the steam turbine are required during normal operations due to the radiation levels arising from the steam entering directly from the reactor core. Additional precautions are required during turbine maintenance activities compared to a PWR.
• Control rods are inserted from below for current BWR designs. There are two available hydraulic power sources that can drive the control rods into the core for a BWR under emergency conditions. There is a dedicated high pressure hydraulic accumulator and also the pressure inside of the reactor pressure vessel available to each control rod. Either the dedicated accumulator (one per rod) or reactor pressure is capable of fully inserting each rod. Most other reactor types use top entry control rods that are held up in the withdrawn position by electromagnets, causing them to fall into the reactor by gravity if power is lost.

Armature and its Windings

Armature :
Gramme -Ring armatureThe old Gramme-Ring armature,now obselete is shown in figure view A. Each coil is connected to two commutator segments as shown. One end of coil 1 goes to segment A, and the other end of coil 1 goes to segment B. One end of coil 2 goes to segment C, and the other end of coil 2 goes to segment B. The rest of the coils are connected in a like manner, in series, around the armature. To complete the series arrangement, coil 8 connects to segment A. Therefore, each coil is in series with every other coil. 

View B shows a composite view of a Gramme-ring armature. It illustrates more graphically the physical relationship of the coils and commutator locations.
The windings of a Gramme-ring armature are placed on an iron ring. A disadvantage of this arrangement is that the windings located on the inner side of the iron ring cut few lines of flux. Therefore, they have little, if any, voltage induced in them. For this reason, the Gramme-ring armature is not widely used. 
Drum-type armature :
A drum-type armature is shown in figure.The armature windings are placed in slots cut in a drum-shaped iron core. Each winding completely surrounds the core so that the entire length of the conductor cuts the main magnetic field. Therefore, the total voltage induced in the armature is greater than in the Gramme-ring. You can see that the drum-type armature is much more efficient than the Gramme-ring. This accounts for the almost universal use of the drum-type armature in modem dc generators. 

Armature Windings :Drum-type armatures are wound with either of two types of windings - the Lap Winding or the Wave Winding. The difference beween the two is merely due to the different arrangement of the end connections at the front or commutator end of armature.Each winding can be arranged progressively or retrogressively and connected in simplex,duplex and triplex.The following rules,however,apply to both types of the windings:

(i)The front and back pitch are each approximately equal to the pole-pitch i.e windings should be full-pitched.This results in increased e.m.f round the coils.For special purposes,fractional-pitched windings are deliberately used.
(ii)Both pitches should be odd, otherwise it would be difficult to place the coils properly on the armature.For example if YB and YF were both even,then all the coil sides and conductors would lie either in the upper half of slots or in the lower half.Hence, it would become impossible for one side of the coil to lie in the upper half of one slot and the other side of the same coil to lie in the lower half of some other slot.
(iii) The number of commutator segments is equa to the number of slots or coils because the front ends of conductors are joined to the segments in pairs.
(iv) The winding must close upon itself i.e if we start from agiven point and move from one coil to another,then all conuctors should be traversed and we should reach the same point again without a break or discontinuty in betwen.

Lap Winding :
View A This type of winding is used in dc generators designed for high-current applications. The windings are connected to provide several parallel paths for current in the armature. For this reason, lap-wound armatures used in dc generators require several pairs of poles and brushes.

In lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment and to the starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole an so on,till all the coils have been connected.This type of winding derives its name from the fact it doubles or laps back with its succeding coils.Following points regarding simplex lap winding should be noted: 

1. The back and front pitches are odd and of opposite sign.But they can't be equal. They differ by 2 or some multiple thereof.
2. Both YB and YF shpuld be nearly equal to a pole pitch.
3. The average pitch YA = (YB + YF)/2.It equals pole pitch = Z/P.
4. Commutator pitch YC = ±1.
5. Resultant pitch YR is even, being the arithmetical difference of two odd numbers i.e YR = YB - YF.
6. The number of slots for a 2-layer winding is equal to the number of coils.The number of commutator segments is also the same.
7. The number of parallel paths in the armature = mP where 'm' is the multiplicity of the winding and 'P' the number of poles.Taking the first condition, we have YB = YF ± 2m where m=1 fo simplex lap and m =2 for duplex winding etc.

• If YB > YF i.e YB = YF + 2, then we get a progressive or right-handed winding i.e a winding which progresses in the clockwise direction as seen from the comutator end.In this case YC = +1.
• If YB < size="1">F i.e YB = YF - 2,then we get a retrogressive or left-handed winding i.e one which advances in the anti-clockwise direction when seen from the commutator side.In this case YC = -1.
• Hence, it is obvious that for
  

The figures below shows the simplex lap winding in circular form and in development form.


































Wave WindingView B, shows a wave winding on a drum-type armature. This type of winding is used in dc generators employed in high-voltage applications. Notice that the two ends of each coil are connected to commutator segments separated by the distance between poles. This configuration allows the series addition of the voltages in all the windings between brushes. This type of winding only requires one pair of brushes. In practice, a practical generator may have several pairs to improve commutation. 
When the end connections of the coils are spread apart as shown in Figure a wave or series winding is formed. In a wave winding there are only two paths regardless of the number of poles. Therefore, this type winding requires only two brushes but can use as many brushes as poles. Because the winding progresses in one direction round the armature in a series of 'waves' it is know as wave winding.If, after passing once round the armature,the winding falls in a slot to the left of its starting point then winding is said to be retrogressive.If, however, it falls one slot to the right, then it is progressive.
The figures below shows the simplex wave winding in circular form and in development form. 





















Points to note in case of Wave winding :

1. Both pitches YB and YF are odd and of the same sign.
2. Back and front pitches are nearly equal to the pole pitch and may be equal or differ by 2, in which case, they are respectively one more or one less than the average pitch.
3. Resultant pitch YR = YF + YB.
4. Commutator pitch, YC = YA (in lap winding YC = ±1 ). Also YC = (No.of commutator bars ± 1 ) / No.of pair of poles.
5. The average pitch which must be an integer is given by YA = (Z ± 2)/P = (No.of commutator bars ± 1)/No.of pair of poles.
6. The number of coils i.e NC can be found from the relation NC = (PYA ± 2)/2.
7. It is obvious from 5 that for a wave winding, the number of armature conductors with 2 either added or subtracted must be a multiple of the number of poles of the generator.This restriction eliminates many even numbers which are unsuitable for this winding.
8. The number of armature parallel paths = 2m where 'm' is the multiplicity of the winding.

Electric Power Systems and its components

Electric Power Systems, components that transform other types of energy into electrical energy and transmit this energy to a consumer. The production and transmission of electricity is relatively efficient and inexpensive, although unlike other forms of energy, electricity is not easily stored and thus must generally be used as it is being produced.

Components of an Electric Power System
A modern electric power system consists of six main components:

1. The power station
2. A set of transformers to raise the generated power to the high voltages used on the transmission lines
3. The transmission lines
4. The substations at which the power is stepped down to the voltage on the distribution lines
5. The distribution lines
6. the transformers that lower the distribution voltage to the level used by the consumer's equipment.

Power StationThe power station of a power system consists of a prime mover, such as a turbine driven by water, steam, or combustion gases that operate a system of electric motors and generators. Most of the world's electric power is generated in steam plants driven by coal, oil, nuclear energy, or gas. A smaller percentage of the world’s electric power is generated by hydroelectric (waterpower), diesel, and internal-combustion plants.
Transformers
Modern electric power systems use transformers to convert electricity into different voltages. With transformers, each stage of the system can be operated at an appropriate voltage. In a typical system, the generators at the power station deliver a voltage of from 1,000 to 26,000 volts (V). Transformers step this voltage up to values ranging from 138,000 to 765,000 V for the long-distance primary transmission line because higher voltages can be transmitted more efficiently over long distances. At the substation the voltage may be transformed down to levels of 69,000 to 138,000 V for further transfer on the distribution system. Another set of transformers step the voltage down again to a distribution level such as 2,400 or 4,160 V or 15, 27, or 33 kilovolts (kV). Finally the voltage is transformed once again at the distribution transformer near the point of use to 240 or 120 V. 
Transmission Lines
The lines of high-voltage transmission systems are usually composed of wires of copper, aluminum, or copper-clad or aluminum-clad steel, which are suspended from tall latticework towers of steel by strings of porcelain insulators. By the use of clad steel wires and high towers, the distance between towers can be increased, and the cost of the transmission line thus reduced. In modern installations with essentially straight paths, high-voltage lines may be built with as few as six towers to the kilometer. In some areas high-voltage lines are suspended from tall wooden poles spaced more closely together. For lower voltage distribution lines, wooden poles are generally used rather than steel towers. In cities and other areas where open lines create a safety hazard or are considered unattractive, insulated underground cables are used for distribution. Some of these cables have a hollow core through which oil circulates under low pressure. The oil provides temporary protection from water damage to the enclosed wires should the cable develop a leak. Pipe-type cables in which three cables are enclosed in a pipe filled with oil under high pressure (14 kg per sq cm/200 psi) are frequently used. These cables are used for transmission of current at voltages as high as 345,000 V (or 345 kV).
Supplementary Equipment
Any electric-distribution system involves a large amount of supplementary equipment to protect the generators, transformers, and the transmission lines themselves. The system often includes devices designed to regulate the voltage or other characteristics of power delivered to consumers.
To protect all elements of a power system from short circuits and overloads, and for normal switching operations, circuit breakers are employed. These breakers are large switches that are activated automatically in the event of a short circuit or other condition that produces a sudden rise of current. Because a current forms across the terminals of the circuit breaker at the moment when the current is interrupted, some large breakers (such as those used to protect a generator or a section of primary transmission line) are immersed in a liquid that is a poor conductor of electricity, such as oil, to quench the current. In large air-type circuit breakers, as well as in oil breakers, magnetic fields are used to break up the current. Small air-circuit breakers are used for protection in shops, factories, and in modern home installations. In residential electric wiring, fuses were once commonly employed for the same purpose. A fuse consists of a piece of alloy with a low melting point, inserted in the circuit, which melts, bre

Slideshow: Electric Car Batteries Get Bigger

To boost the range of pure electric vehicles (EVs), automakers need more onboard energy. To get more energy, they need bigger battery packs.

That's why manufacturers such as Tesla Motors and BYD Automobile are rolling out vehicles with massive EV battery packs. Tesla's Model S offers a choice of three packs -- 40kWh, 60kWh, and 85kWh. The smaller packs have approximately 5,000 cells in them, while the bigger packs incorporate 8,000 cells, and weigh up to 1,200 pounds. Similarly, BYD's highly anticipated e6 will use a 1,400lb, 71kWh battery.

Not all automakers are building such massive packs. Nissan's Leaf uses a 24kWh model, while the Chevy Volt employs a 16kWh battery, and the Toyota Prius PHV (a plug-in hybrid) incorporates a 5.2-kWh unit. We've collected photos of a wide range of EV battery packs, ranging from production to research devices.

Click on the photo below to scroll through our EV battery slideshow:

The electric DeLorean's battery bay houses the vehicle's electric motor and half of its battery pack.
(Source: DeLorean Motor Co.)

For further reading:

• For a close-up look at GM's Chevy Volt, go to the Drive for Innovation site and follow the cross-country journey of EE Life editorial director, Brian Fuller. In the trip sponsored by Avnet Express, Fuller is taking the fire-engine-red Volt to innovation hubs across America, interviewing engineers, entrepreneurs, innovators, and students as he blogs his way across the country.

Design Decisions: Finding an Alternative Military Battery

While the battery chemistries used to power single-use military and aerospace applications remained virtually unchanged for decades, technological advancements have pushed legacy batteries to their limit in terms of supporting advanced product designs for avionics, navigation systems, ordinance fuses, missile systems, GPS tracking and emergency/safety devices, shipboard, and oceanographic devices.

Recognizing that antiquated battery technologies would hold back new product development, the US Department of Defense identified the “critical need” for a new generation of high-power, long-life batteries for single-use applications. From this challenge, a new battery technology has emerged that represents a viable alternative to legacy battery technologies.

Twenty-four lithium metal oxide cells are 30-percent smaller and 75-percent lighter with 3.5 times more energy density than an equivalent silver-zinc battery.
(Source: Tadiran Batteries)

Reserve and thermal batteries store the electrolyte separately from other active ingredients, which keeps it inert until a pyrotechnic device initiates a chemical reaction. The most popular type of reserve battery is the thermal battery, which utilizes a metallic salt electrolyte that is inert and non-conducting in its solid state at ambient temperatures. A squib delivers a pyrotechnic charge that causes the electrolyte to become molten at 400C to 700C, thus energizing the cell to deliver short-term continuous current from a few watts to several kilowatts depending upon battery size and chemistry.

Advantages of thermal battery design include ruggedness, safety, reliability, and long shelf life. Limitations include an inability to test the cell without fully depleting it, delayed battery activation, and the need for insulation layers to keep the molten electrolyte at a steady temperature, and to protect surrounding components from heat-related damage.

Electric Vehicles: How Far Have We Come in 100 Years?

If you want to get a sense of how far the electric car market has really come, it's instructive to read "Foreign Trade in Electric Vehicles," an article available on the New York Times Website.

In glowing terms, the article describes the future of electric cars. The vehicle "has long been recognized as the ideal solution" and is "cleaner and quieter" than other cars, as well as "more economical." The article also praises the electric vehicle (EV) battery. "It is simple, light, easy to take care of and far more efficient than the old lead battery," and the new battery "solves the problem of electric transportation."

An Edison storage battery in test setup, from the 1916 monograph "The Edison Alkaline Storage Battery," by the technical staff of the Edison Storage Battery Co.

The article is dated Nov. 12, 1911 -- 100 years ago this month.

It's hard to look at the article and not wonder how far we've come. Yes, the EV is back. Nissan has its Leaf. Ford has two EVs coming out soon. General Motors has announced the Spark EV and has the Chevy Volt, an electric car that burns gasoline part of the time. Tesla plans to roll out the Model S soon and is working with Toyota on an electric RAV4. Mitsubishi has its i MiEV. Even DeLorean has announced an electric car.

But the EV battery... has it really advanced much in the past 100 years? In a 1998 Design News article, battery makers discussed the creation of a lithium-ion battery with an energy density of 90Wh/kg. Thirteen years later, the Nissan Leaf battery is rated at 140Wh/kg -- a 55% increase. That's not bad, but is it enough to make the EV battery a serious competitor with gasoline, which offers 80 times as much energy and a five-minute refueling capability?

Moreover, there's the issue of cost. In the 1998 Design News article, engineers set a target of $100/kWh to make EV batteries more competitive. Today, the cost figure still hovers between $800 and $1,000/kWh.

Because the costs are so high, most EV makers are using the higher energy densities to reduce the size of their batteries. Instead of a bulky 900-pound unit, they're employing higher-energy packs of about 400 or 500 pounds. But the flip side of that strategy is that EV range hasn't changed much. If we go back to the 1998 Design News article, we see the ranges as follows:

• Chrysler Epic minivan: 68 miles.
• Ford Ranger EV: 58 miles.
• GM EV1: 90 miles.
• GM S-10 electric pickup: 45 miles.
• Toyota RAV4 EV: 118 miles.

Now contrast that with today's Nissan Leaf. Nissan says its 2011 Leaf travels 100 miles between charges. (The EPA rates it at 73.)

Many EV proponents have explanations for all this. A popular one is the "big oil conspiracy." According to this logic, oil executives have conspired with automakers to suppress development of EVs over the years. Numerous Websites are dedicated to explaining this conspiracy. However, they have not explained why our universities have had limited luck in creating a revolutionary battery over the past 100 years.

The truth is that the EV's real gains have been in speed and performance. On drag strips around the country, EV converters are turning quarter-mile times as low as 10 seconds using old Ford Pintos and Datsuns. The old GM EV1 was said to have hit a speed of more than 180mph, and the White Lightning racing EV reached 245mph. If Thomas Edison (who invented the battery discussed in the 1911 New York Times article) could see the performance of today's EVs, he'd be astounded.

Still, Edison might be equally surprised by the lack of advancement in the area of battery energy. Many potential buyers are still turned off, not only by the cost, but by the pure EV's inability to make long trips. Bill Reinert, national manager of advanced technology vehicles for Toyota, said it best this year, when he told us: "Even if I'm covered 90% of the time, I'm probably unlikely to make a [buying] decision that leaves me uncovered 10% of the time."

Obviously, researchers are working on the energy issue, but their efforts would be best flavored with a little public patience. If the 100-year-old New York Times article teaches us anything, it's that vehicle electrification could still be a long, arduous journey.